5 The Rise of Empires
" There cannot be a country without people and there is
no kingdom without a country."
— Kauṭilya, Arthaśhāstra
The Big Questions?
1. What is an empire?
2. How did empires rise and shape
Indian civilisation?
3. What factors facilitated the
transition from kingdoms to
empires?
4. What was life like from the 6th
to the 2nd century BCE?
Landing on the outskirts of the great city, a little dizzy, they saw a
girl talking to a person on horseback dressed in strange clothes.
As he left, she turned to them, and they asked her for her name.
“My name is Ira, daughter of Kanhadas, the ironsmith. Welcome
to Pāṭaliputra!”
“Sshh! Keep your voices down! Do you see those soldiers marching
past? They’re heading to battle against a neighbouring kingdom
that has been troubling us. Our king avoids war when he can, but
he also protects his people when needed. My father helped forge
many of the swords they carry, and my uncle is one of the soldiers
in the group. I just came to see him off… I don’t know when he’ll
return.”
(The group watches as an
impressive procession of soldiers
crosses a sturdy drawbridge
leading out of the city, some on
horseback and the army chiefs
on elephant back. Then, the
three children cross the same
drawbridge to enter the city.)
“What kind of bridge is this?” asked Bhavisha. “And is it a
river below?”
“This bridge keeps us safe,” explained Ira. “It’s lifted whenever there is a danger of attack on the city. And no, it’s not a river, it’s a moat; once the drawbridge is lifted, it makes it more difficult to approach the fortifications. Can you see those hills and forests in the distance? They provide us with timber, herbs, and many other valuable resources. Elephants for the army are also captured from the forest and trained for the army.”
“What is the opening in that hill?” asked Dhruv.
“It’s a cave. Our king is getting it carved out for a community of
monks. I hope we can visit it when it’s finished!”
(As they move through Pāṭaliputra, they take in its splendour — towering wooden ramparts with watch towers, majestic palaces and buildings, lively streets. Ira gestures towards a bustling market filled with traders from distant lands.)
“You must visit our main market before you leave! Our king welcomes travellers from all over, so you’ll get silk from China, spices and gems from the south, fine clothes from different regions—there’s nothing you won’t find in Pāṭaliputra!”
“What are those people over there doing?” asked Dhruv.
“Oh, these are street acrobats; they build human pyramids, sing and dance, or act in short plays to entertain people. Sometimes, they perform in front of the king!”
“Your king sounds very powerful,” remarked Bhavisha. “Does he rule the region around Pāṭaliputra?”
“Much more than that!” answered Ira. “He rules over a vast land, far, far beyond this city. His authority extends over many villages, towns and kingdoms. My uncle told me that it takes close to two months on horseback to reach the borders of the territory!”
“That sounds bigger than just a kingdom… What do you call it?”
“It is called an Empire,” Ira stated with evident pride.
What is an Empire?
The word ‘empire’ comes from the Latin ‘imperium’, which
means ‘supreme power’. Simply put, an empire is a collection
of smaller kingdoms or territories over which a powerful ruler
or group of rulers exert power, often after waging war against
the smaller kingdoms. The smaller territories still had their own
rulers, but they were all tributaries to the emperor, who ruled
the whole territory from a capital, usually a major centre of
economic and administrative power.
In ancient Sanskrit texts, words commonly used for ‘emperor’
made this clear; they included samrāj, meaning ‘the lord of all’
or ‘supreme ruler’; adhirāja or ‘overlord’; and rājādhirāja or
‘king of kings’.
Indian history is full of empires. They rose, expanded, lasted
for a while, declined, and disappeared. In fact, the last empire
that ruled the Subcontinent existed less than a century ago! But
now is not the time to tell that story; we start at the other end
of time, so we may understand how empires functioned in the
distant past and how they deeply impacted India’s evolution at
all levels — political, economic, social, and cultural.
- Empires extended over vast areas and had diverse people with differing languages, customs and cultures. How do you think the emperors made sure that they lived in harmony? Discuss in groups and share your thoughts with the class.
- Looking at the many challenges involved in managing an empire, why should a king be so keen to expand his kingdom into an empire and become an emperor? Here are a few possible answers; see if you can think of a few more:
- 1. An ambition to ‘rule the entire world’, a metaphor for controlling large territories and ensuring that they would be remembered for posterity;
- 2. A wish to bring large areas under control and gain access to their resources to build economic and military strength;
- 3. A desire for great wealth for himself and for the empire.
In return for tribute and loyalty, emperors generally allowed regional kings or chiefs to continue to govern their areas.
Warfare apart, what other methods do you think the rulers might have used to expand their empires? Pen your ideas and share them with your class.
Trade , trade routes and guilds
Conducting military campaigns, especially in distant lands, is not as simple as it might seem. Maintaining an army is a costly affair: soldiers need to be fed, clothed, equipped with weapons, and paid; elephants and horses need to be cared for; roads or ships have to be built, and so on. All this requires considerable economic power, control over the workforce, and access to resources.We can now understand that economic activity — especially production and trade — is one of the keys to maintaining an empire and ensuring people’s welfare and quality of life, which a good ruler should be concerned with. Therefore, establishing and controlling trade routes all over the empire’s territory and beyond is of great importance. That way, the goods traded will grow in quantity and variety, and more trade means more income for the producers and increased tax collections for the ruler.
Returning to the case of ancient India, what would have been the traded goods? There is plenty of evidence on this, at least, both from the literature and archaeological excavations — textiles, spices, agricultural produce, luxury items such as gems and handicraft products, and various animals were among the main items of trade. All this brisk trade was not limited to India; many Indian goods travelled towards distant countries by land or sea.
More often than not, traders were not just isolated individuals carrying out their own business. They soon understood the benefits of joining forces and creating guilds (śhrenīs). Guilds were powerful associations of traders, craftsmen, moneylenders or agriculturists. As far as evidence shows, a guild had a head (who was usually elected) and executive officers who were supposed to have all kinds of ethical qualities. Two things made traders’ guilds a remarkable institution. First, they brought together people who ended up being collaborators rather than competitors, as they realised that sharing resources and information on markets, supply and demand, workforce, etc., was to everyone’s benefit. Second, as an ancient text put it, “Cultivators, traders, herdsmen, moneylenders, and artisans have authority to lay down rules for their respective classes”; in other words, guilds had the autonomy to create their own internal rules, and the king was not to interfere with them (and why should he, if trade flourished?).
Guilds spread over large parts of India and endured for centuries. Even after they ceased to exist formally, their spirit continued to influence India’s trade and business activities, sometimes even to this day. The institution of guilds provides an excellent example of the self-organising abilities of Indian society. The ancient village unit, with its various committees and councils, provides another. Indeed, an enlightened ruler would let people organise themselves and refrain from interfering if the local institutions worked satisfactorily.
- Observe the map of the trade routes. Identify geographical features that helped the traders travel across the Subcontinent.
- What modes of transport on those roads do you think were available at the time?
The Rise of Magadha
The period between the 6th and the 4th century BCE was one of profound change in north India. We briefly visited the sixteen mahājanapadas earlier — those large kingdoms of north and central India with their assembly system. One of them, Magadha (modern-day south Bihar and some adjoining areas), rose in importance and set the stage for the fusion of many kingdoms into India’s first empire. Powerful early kings, such as Ajātaśhatru, played a crucial role in establishing Magadha as a dominant centre of power.Two of the most famed religious figures of the world — Siddhārtha Gautama, who became known as the Buddha, and Vardhamānan, better known as Mahāvīra — lived in the time of King Ajātaśhatru. Revisit their teachings in the Grade 6 textbook’s ‘India’s Cultural Roots’ chapter.
- Take a close look at the panel given above. How many types of weapons can you identify? What different uses of iron can you make out?
- In the left part of the panel, a parasol (chhattra) is kept over the casket containing the Buddha’s relics. Why do you think this was done?
The production of surplus
food grains allowed more
people to focus on the arts
and crafts, which were in
demand inside and outside the
empire’s borders. The Ganga
and Son rivers provided a
geographical advantage for
trade, as they could be used for
transportation. The flourishing trade boosted the empire’s
income and contributed to Magadha’s rise.
Around the 5th century BCE, Mahāpadma Nanda rose to
prominence in Magadha and founded the Nanda dynasty. He
successfully unified many smaller kingdoms and extended
his empire across parts of eastern and northern India. As the
economy thrived, he began issuing coins, demonstrating his
economic power. We also learn from Greek accounts that the
Nanda dynasty maintained a large army.
From various accounts of the Nanda dynasty, it appears that its
last emperor, Dhana Nanda, though very rich, became highly
unpopular as he oppressed and exploited his people. This paved
the way for the Nanda empire to be conquered and absorbed
into what would become one of the largest empires India ever
knew — the Maurya empire.
The famed Sanskrit grammarian Pāṇini lived around the 5th century BCE, during the time of the Nandas. He is known for composing the Aṣhṭādhyāyi, an ancient text that lists the rules of Sanskrit grammar in 3,996 short sūtras.
The Arrival of the Greeks
While events unfolded in Magadha, located in the eastern part of the subcontinent, what was happening in the northwestern region? This area was home to smaller kingdoms along an ancient route connecting to the Mediterranean. Among them, according to Greek accounts, were the Pauravas, led by their king, Porus.
Alexander heard of a group of Indian sages whom the Greeks called ‘Gymnosophists’ or ‘naked philosophers’ (probably because they wore very little clothing), who were renowned for their wisdom. Alexander challenged them with tricky questions in the form of riddles, warning that he would put those who gave wrong answers to death. However, the Gymnosophists responded to his questions calmly and intelligently. Alexander was impressed and, in the end, spared them all. Over the centuries, different versions of this story have been told, making it one of the most fascinating encounters in history!
According to one account, Alexander asked, “Which is stronger, life or death?” One of the sages replied, “Life, because it endures while death does not.” Alexander then asked, “How can a man be most loved?” “If he is most powerful and yet does not inspire fear,” came the reply, perhaps as a hint to the mighty ruler!
Historians view such exchanges as a meeting of two great traditions — Greek and Indian philosophies.The Mighty Mauryas
After that brief sojourn to the northwest, let us return to Magadha, where we witnessed the decline of the Nanda empire. Around 321 BCE, just a few years after Alexander left India with his army, a new dynasty and new empire emerged: the Maurya Empire founded by Chandragupta Maurya. It quickly absorbed the Nanda empire’s territories and went on expanding beyond.
As per many accounts, Chandragupta managed this feat with the help of an able mentor named Kauṭilya, who used his knowledge 98 of politics, governance and economics to create an empire that remains one of the greatest in Indian history.
The story of Kauṭilya
According to Buddhist texts, Kauṭilya—sometimes referred to as
Chāṇakya or Viṣhnugupta—was a teacher at the world-renowned
Takṣhaśhila (modern-day Taxila) university. His legendary tale
begins in the court of Dhana Nanda, who as we saw, had become
highly unpopular.
Observing this, Kauṭilya advised Dhana Nanda to change his
ways or witness the collapse of his empire. Angered, Dhana
Nanda insulted Kauṭilya and threw him out of his court. This led
to Kauṭilya’s vow to end the ‘evil Nanda’ rule.
The rise of Chandragupta Maurya
There are many stories about the origin and adventures of Chandragupta Maurya, but their common theme is that he overthrew the Nandas and took control of Magadha to establish his rule, with Pāṭaliputra as his capital. Do you remember that Magadha had many advantages because of its geography, an established economic system and a flourishing trade? These, combined with the advice of the master strategist, Kauṭilya, helped Chandragupta Maurya gradually expand his empire. He defeated the Greek satraps left behind by Alexander in the northwest and integrated the region into an empire that stretched from the northern plains to the Deccan plateau.
After Chandragupta Maurya defeated the Greeks, he maintained a diplomatic relationship with them and hosted in his court a Greek historian and diplomat, Megasthenes, who wrote about his travels in India in his book Indika — the first such written account — unfortunately lost except for some excerpts quoted by later Greek scholars.
Kauṭilya’s concept of a kingdom
Kauṭilya had a clear vision of how a kingdom (rājya) should be established, managed and consolidated. In his famous work Arthaśhāstra (literally, ‘the science of governance and economics’), he listed directives in many areas like defence, economics, administration, justice, urban planning, agriculture and people’s welfare. One of his most important political concepts is the saptānga (see fig 5.15) or the seven parts that constitute a kingdom.According to Kauṭilya, the saptānga together must create a settled, well-protected, and prosperous kingdom to be maintained both through warfare and through alliances for peace, as the case may be. He emphasised the importance of law and order in society, which necessitated a strong administration. He also detailed many laws to deal with corruption and specified punishments for any activities that went against the wellbeing of the people.
THINK ABOUT IT
- Kauṭilya says, “A king shall increase his power by promoting the welfare of his people, for power comes from the countryside which is the source of all economic activity. [The king] shall show special favours to those in the countryside who do things which benefit the people, such as building embankments or road bridges, beautifying villages, or helping to protect them.”
- Why do you think it was important to take special care of the countryside? (Hint: Think back to what you have learnt at the beginning of this chapter)
Kauṭilya’s central philosophy of governance is in tune with Indian values: “In the happiness of his subjects lies the king’s happiness; in their welfare his welfare. He shall not consider as good only that which pleases him but treat as beneficial to him whatever pleases his subjects.” In other words, however powerful a king may be, he must give first place to the people’s interests.
Organise a group discussion in your class and compare the features of Kauṭilya’s idea of an empire with a modern nation.
The King Who Chose Peace
Another king of the Maurya dynasty was Aśhoka (268 232 BCE), Chandragupta’s grandson, who came to be credited with major administrative and religious achievements.
At the beginning of his reign, Aśhoka was quite ambitious. He had inherited a vast empire but further expanded it to cover almost the entirety of the Indian subcontinent, except for the southernmost region, but including present-day Bangladesh and Pakistan and parts of present-day Afghanistan. One encounter, however, is said to have changed the path of his life. According to one of his edicts he once marched on Kalinga (modern-day Odisha), where he waged a ferocious war. Seeing the enormous amount of death and destruction on the battlefield, Aśhoka chose to give up violence and, to the greatest extent possible, adopt the path of peace and non-violence that the Buddha taught.
THINK ABOUT IT
Aśhoka, in his edicts, tells the story of the Kalinga war. He
could have chosen not to mention it and maintain his image
as a peaceful, benevolent king for future generations. Why
do you think he admitted to this destructive war?
Embracing Buddhist teachings, Aśhoka sent emissaries to Sri Lanka, Thailand, Central Asia and beyond to spread the message of the Buddha far and wide.
Historians have sometimes called Aśhoka a ‘great communicator’ since he issued in many parts of his empire edicts engraved on rocks or pillars that contained his messages for the people and encouraged them to follow dharma. Most of these edicts were inscribed in Prakrit, which was the popular language in many parts of India and written in the Brahmi script (Brahmi is the mother of all regional scripts of India).
In his edicts, Aśhoka called himself ‘Devanampiya Piyadasi’; the first word means ‘Beloved of the Gods’; the second, ‘one who regards others with kindness’. And indeed, the language of the edicts makes it clear that he was interested in depicting himself as a benevolent and compassionate ruler. Let us see a few examples of this.
Although some southern kingdoms were not part of the Mauryan kingdom, Aśhoka supported their overall wellbeing. He claimed to provide medical care for people and animals even beyond his empire, prohibited hunting and cruelty to animals, and ordered medical treatment for them when necessary. If so, Aśhoka was an early contributor to nature conservation and wildlife preservation. He said he had established rest houses and wells at regular intervals along the main roads of his empire and got fruit and shade trees planted. He also claimed to encourage all sects (the different schools of thought present in his time) to accept each other’s best teachings and study them.
Although we need not take all of Aśhoka’s claims literally, it is clear that in line with Kauṭilya’s philosophy of governance, he paid attention to the welfare of his subjects and made efforts to 106 reach out to them.
You read about the word ‘dharma’ (dhamma in Prakrit) in Grade 6. Its essence cannot be easily captured. In simple terms, dharma means moral law or someone’s religious or ethical duties towards family, community or country. At a deeper level, however, dharma extends to living according to the order of the universe or ṛitam. This includes doing one’s duty truthfully, following rules of righteous conduct and leading a life in harmony with the cosmic order. Dharma is, therefore, duty, law, truth, order and ethics — all of it together!
The Maurya empire continued for half a century after Aśhoka’s
death. However, his successors were unable to hold the empire
together, and many of the smaller kingdoms broke off and
became independent. Around 185 BCE, India started on another
phase of her journey. Bhavisha and Dhruv will join us on this
journey in the next chapter.
Life in the Mauryan period
Cities like Pāṭaliputra were bustling centres of governance and commerce. They had palaces, public buildings, and well-planned streets. With a well-organised taxation system and brisk trade, the treasury remained strong, fuelling the empire’s growth and prosperity. Officials of the administration of the empire, merchants and artisans played key roles in the city life.
The Sohagaura copper plate inscription, dating back to the 4th–3rd century BCE, is one of India’s earliest known administrative records. Discovered in Sohgaura, Uttar Pradesh, it is written in Prakrit using the Brahmi script and is believed to have been issued during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya. The inscription mentions the establishment of a granary to store grain as a precaution against famines, highlighting the state’s efforts to ensure food security and support its people during times of crisis.
Megasthenes’ account also throws some light on the society of that time. A substantial proportion of the population was engaged in agriculture, which was an important source of revenue for the empire. Two crops were sown in a year, as rain fell in both summer and winter. This ensured that famines were rare and people had ample food. Granaries were well stocked for any eventualities. Even if war raged nearby, farmers were protected from it, and agriculture was not disturbed.
Blacksmiths, potters, carpenters, jewellers and other artisans lived in the cities. The cities were well-planned and had signage on the streets. Communication happened through couriers who carried messages from place to place. The houses were made of wood and could be up to two storeys tall. The streets had vessels of water stored at regular intervals in case of fire.
Later accounts describe the cotton dresses people wore — a
lower garment that reached below the knee halfway down to
the ankles and an upper garment that they threw over their
shoulders. Some wore leather shoes with designs and thick soles
to make them look taller.
Wear the hat of a historian. Look carefully at the artefacts presented on the spread on the next page. What conclusions can you draw about people and life during the Mauryan era?
Fig. 5.20 has many messages for us,
apart from the beauty and perfection
of the sculpture, and is a fine example
of Mauryan art. This capital (a word
which, here, means ‘top portion’ or
‘head’) was the top of a pillar that
Aśhoka got erected at Sarnath, near
Varanasi, where the Buddha gave
his first teaching. The four lions
symbolise the royal power; on the
ring below, four powerful animals
(an elephant, a bull, a horse and
one more lion) are depicted, along
with the dharmachakra or wheel
of dharma, which symbolises the
Buddha’s teachings.
Some Contributions of the Mauryas
Life and people
Art and architecture
The big, round hemispherical structure in the centre of the stūpa is called the aṇḍa. It represents the universe and is often built to house sacred relics. People walk around it in a circle as a form of worship (pradakṣhiṇa).
The Fragile Nature of Empires
You will hear in higher grades about past mighty empires elsewhere in the world, such as the Roman, the Persian, the Ottoman, the Spanish, the Russian, the British empires, and so on. All of them are long gone, but historians keep debating the causes of their decline.
One of those causes, as we saw, is the temptation for some of
the empire’s regions to try and become independent. This could
happen if, for example, the emperor needed more resources
for long military campaigns or in times of drought; local rulers
would be burdened with increasing demands for tribute,
leading to resentment. Or if a powerful emperor was followed
by one perceived to be weak, local kings or chieftains might
simply decide to take a chance and stop paying tribute. Also, the
larger an empire, the more difficult it is to hold it together, as
Alexander experienced; far-off territories are often the first to
split away from the empire. Finally, economic crises caused by
natural calamities (such as a long drought or floods) could also
shake an empire’s structure.
Empires are, therefore, something of a paradox. On the one hand,
they can bring about political unity, as the Mauryan empire
did to almost the entire Subcontinent, and reduce or eliminate
warfare among the smaller kingdoms — indeed, a well-managed
empire could lead to greater prosperity than smaller, warring
kingdoms. On the other hand, empires have almost always been
established through war and have maintained their existence through force and repression. This makes them fragile at their
core and unstable over time.
Before we move on …
- An empire is a large territory made up of many smaller
kingdoms or territories. Emperors expanded their kingdoms
mostly to gain fame, amass power, including military power,
and control resources and economic life.
- The first empires of India emerged in regions blessed with abundant natural resources, rivers for irrigation and transport, and the production of a variety of goods for trade.
- Alexander’s campaign in northwest India had a limited political impact but opened the door for Indo-Greek cultural contacts.
- The Mauryas created a vast empire with a legacy that lasted
centuries. Their legacy includes strengthening trade routes
and economic systems, extensive use of coins for trade,
well-designed urban settlements, and an elaborate system
of administration. They also promoted art and architecture.
- Aśhoka was keen to advertise his achievements and project
the image of a benevolent ruler who encouraged his subjects
to follow dharma.
Questions and activities
1. What are the features of an empire, and how is it different from a kingdom? Explain.
2. What are some important factors for the transition from kingdoms to empires?
3. Alexander is considered an important king in the history of the world —why do you think that is so?
4. In early Indian history, the Mauryas are considered important. State your reasons.
5. What were some of Kauṭilya’s key ideas? Which ones of
these can you observe even today in the world around us?
6. What were the unusual things about Aśhoka and his empire?
What of that has continued to influence India and why? Write
your opinion in about 250 words.
7. Thus speaks the Beloved of the Gods, the king Piyadasi: My officers of Dhamma are busy in many matters of public benefit, they are busy among members of all sects, both ascetics and householders. I have appointed some to concern themselves with the Buddhist Order, with brahmans and Ājīvika..., with the Jains..., and with various sects. There are many categories of officers with a variety of duties, but my officers of Dhamma are busy with the affairs of these and other sects.
After reading the above edict of Aśhoka, do you think he was tolerant towards other religious beliefs and schools of thought? Share your opinion in the classroom.
8. The Brahmi script was a writing system that was widely used in ancient India. Try to learn more about this script, taking help from your teacher wherever required. Create a small project and include what you have learnt about Brahmi.
9. Suppose you had to travel from Kauśhāmbī to Kāveripattanam in the 3rd century BCE. How would you undertake this journey, and how long would you expect it to take, with reasonable halts on the way?
