6 The Age of Reorganisation
"By continuous living tradition and a vital power of
rejuvenescence, this land has readjusted itself through unnumbered transformations."
— Jagdish Chandra Bose (1917)
The Big Questions?
1. Why is the period that
followed the Maurya empire
sometimes called the ‘Age of
Reorganisation’?
2. What were the values or
principles that guided
emperors of that period?
3. How did foreign invaders
assimilate into Indian society
and contribute to cultural
confluence?
Bhavisha and Dhruv had recovered from their journey to
the Maurya empire and were itching for another adventure.
They decide to use Itihāsa again and landed in a new
historical period. They came across a collection of art pieces,
each one quite different from the other. (See Fig. 6.1.1) They
wondered —could these artefacts belong to multiple
kingdoms rather than just one? They guessed right. In this
chapter we will travel over a fairly long period. Here we go…
Very little is known about Aśhoka’s
successors to the throne. It is generally
accepted, however, that the last
Maurya emperor was assassinated
around 185 BCE by his commander
in-chief Puṣhyamitra Śhunga. This led
to a breakup of the empire — hardly
half a century after Aśhoka, as we
mentioned in the last chapter. Many
new kingdoms emerged across the
subcontinent, which, often, were
earlier tributary kingdoms under the
overlordship of the Maurya empire. The northwest region
became weak, exposing it to invasions from outside the
subcontinent.
This period is also known as the ‘age of reorganisation’ by
some scholars as the existing regions were being reorganised
into new kingdoms that were constantly competing to become
powerful. The map of India changed significantly in that age, as
did people’s lives.
Create a timeline on a sheet of paper marking the period from the first year of the 2nd century BCE and ending in the last year of the 3rd century CE. How many years does this period cover? As we progress through the chapter, mark the key individuals, kingdoms and events on the timeline.
While working on the timeline, did you notice the transition from BCE to CE? Remember what you learned in the Grade 6 chapter ‘Timeline and Sources of History’ about how time is measured in history.
In the previous chapter, you studied the map of the Maurya empire (see page 100). Above is a map of the post-Maurya period. How many kingdoms can you count in the area that were previously under the control of the Maurya empire?
The ‘new’ kingdoms now competed for territorial control. Peaceful methods like matrimonial alliances between neighbour ing kingdoms, or the use of force in warfare, were means of gaining control. Remember that there was constant wrestling for control over areas along the borders, as gaining control over them was important to keep the kingdom safe from attacks.
Together with those political events, there was a burst in the development of art, architecture and literature, and enriching cultural exchanges. We will get a peek into this in the following sections.
Surge of the Śhungas
Puṣhyamitra Śhunga founded the Śhunga dynasty, which ruled over parts of north and central India. He performed the aśhvamedha yajña, a Vedic ritual, to establish himself as a most powerful ruler. Although his empire was smaller than the previous Maurya Empire (compare their two maps), he kept it safe from potential invaders and maintained friendly relations with the Greeks, after some initial military campaign against them. But, again, the empire did not last long after him — a century later, it was gone.The period witnessed the revival of Vedic rituals and practices, but other schools of thought nevertheless continued to flourish.
The aśhvamedha yajña was a Vedic ritual conducted by
many rulers to declare their position as the king. In this
ritual, a horse accompanied by soldiers was left to wander
freely. Any territory that the horse crossed unchallenged
was considered to become a part of the king’s empire. If
any ruler stopped the horse, it led to a battle to determine
supremacy.Sanskrit emerged as one of the preferred languages for philosophical and literary works. Do you recall some aspects of the Yoga Sūtras in your Physical Education and Well-being classes in Grade 6? These Yoga Sūtras were compiled by Patañjali during this period.
The Śhungas patronised literature, art and architecture. The Bharhut Stūpa (in present-day Madhya Pradesh) presents us with beautiful examples of Śhunga art. It was probably built during the time of Ashoka, but the Śhungas added beautifully carved railings and reliefs depicting stories from the Buddha’s life. These are considered some of the earliest examples of Buddhist art.
Some Śhunga Contribution to Art
Below is a panel from the Bharhut Stūpa. Look at the two f igures on the right. What are they doing? Can you guess their profession? Notice their attire. What does this tell us about them? List other details that you notice in the panel and discuss your findings in class.
Look closely at the pictures in the collage in Fig 6.6 (on the previous page). In a note, write down your observations on the clothes, the jewellery, and other objects of daily use.
The Sātavāhanas
From the limited evidence available, the Śhungas seem to have
waged wars with many of their neighbouring regions. This
may have included the Sātavāhanas, who ruled large parts of
the Deccan from the 2nd century BCE onward, to the south of
the Śhunga Empire. Sometimes referred to as ‘Andhras’, the
Sātavāhanas were a powerful dynasty and their empire largely
comprised of present-day Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and
Maharashtra, with different capital cities at different times — the
most famous were Amrāvatī and Pratiṣhṭhāna (Paithan). Trade
and commerce appear to have flourished in the Sātavāhana
kingdom.
Coins issued by the Sātavāhana rulers
have been found in various regions
of India, from Gujarat to Andhra
Pradesh — India’s western and eastern
coasts. Indeed, many coins depicted
ships, suggesting that maritime trade
was an important part of economic life.
The type of ship depicted on the coin
above suggests advanced shipbuilding
and navigation technologies.
Agriculture flourished in the Krishna Godavari river system, which provided economic stability to the kingdom. The Sātavāhanas had active trade networks that reached as far as the Roman Empire and included an exchange of goods like spices, textiles, sandalwood, and luxury items like gold-plated pearls, ivory, etc. Imports included glass and perfumed ointments. Tolls and taxes on trade added revenue to the kingdom.
Economic prosperity and a relatively peaceful political period facilitated the development of literature, art and culture, to which the Sātavāhanas made significant contributions.
Life under the Sātavāhanas
In the Sātavāhana tradition, princes were
often named after their mothers. Thus
Gautamīputra Sātakarṇi was named
after his mother, Gautamī Balaśhrī. She
was a powerful queen who donated
land to Buddhist monks and had an
important inscription carved in Nāśhik,
showing her influence in the kingdom.
THINK ABOUT IT
What, according to you, could the tradition of using the
mother’s name at the beginning of a king’s name signify?
Another set of inscriptions found in the Naneghat caves near
Pune (Fig. 6.9) focuses on a Sātavāhana widow queen who,
remarkably, performed several Vedic rituals, including the
aśhvamedha yajña. The inscriptions mention Vedic gods like
Indra, Chandra, and Sūrya. We also get a glimpse of the queen’s
donations (dāna): land, cows, horses, elephants, silver coins, and
other items to priests, guests, workers, scholars, and monks.
These inscriptions are in the Brahmi script and include a
few numerals (that is, symbols for numbers) which, at times,
resemble today’s shapes, as shown below. This is one of the many
evidences showing that modern numerals ultimately originated
in India.
THINK ABOUT IT
In the above series of numerals, which ones look somewhat
like our modern numerals? Which ones don’t?
THINK ABOUT IT
This sculpture of a yakṣha from Pitalkhora carries an
inscription on its hand, kanhadāsena hiramakarena kāṭa
meaning ‘made by Kanahadasa, a goldsmith’. Is it not
interesting to see that a goldsmith could also craft a sculpture
made of stone? What do you think this tells us about people’s
professions at the time?
Coming of the Chedis
Let us go back a little. Do you remember the Kalinga war mentioned in the previous chapter? After the decline of the Maurya Empire, Kalinga rose as a prominent power under the kings of the Chedi dynasty.Khāravela, one of their main rulers, was a devoted follower of Jain teachings; he was sometimes called bhikṣhu-rāja or monk-king, although he respected all schools of thoughts. Near Bhubaneswar, the famous Udayagiri-Khandagiri caves, likely developed for Jain monks, feature intricate panels and statues, and spacious rooms carved into the rock, showcasing the skill of the craftsmen. The design and craftsmanship of these caves make them notable examples of ‘rock-cut architecture’, a style of architecture that we will turn to in higher classes.
One of the caves prominently displays the Hāthīgumphā inscription, written in Brahmi script, which records King Khāravela’s accomplishments year after year, including his victorious military campaigns and his benevolent works for the welfare of his people. Khāravela also proudly declares that he created a ‘council of ascetics and sages’ from a hundred regions and is ‘accomplished in extraordinary virtues, respector of every sect and repairer of every temple’. Once again, a ruler takes pride in extending his protection to all schools of thought. This is a fundamental part of what we may call the ‘Indian ethos’.
THINK ABOUT IT
Notice the regularity of the rock-cut chambers sculpted
nearly two millennia ago. How did artisans achieve such
precision with just a chisel and a hammer? Picture yourself
as a sculptor in that era, shaping stone into art with your own
hands. What tools would you use?
Kingdoms and Life in the South
In India’s southern region, this period, between the 2nd or 3rd century BCE and the 3rd century CE, saw the rise to prominence of three powerful kingdoms — the Cheras, the Cholas and the Pānḍyas — which often competed with each other for control over the South, while also contributing to the region’s growth in trade and culture. Let’s remember how Aśhoka’s empire stopped at those south Indian kingdoms (which he mentions in his edicts), which suggests that they remained independent even at the height of Mauryan power. And although Khāravela claims that he defeated an alliance of south Indian kings that threatened his own territory, the location of that battle is unknown and he does not seem to have invaded the southern region.THINK ABOUT IT
In the map given on next page, you may notice different
symbols alongside the names of the kingdoms. What do
these symbols represent? Think about how they highlight the
unique identities of the kingdoms.
That period saw the advent of many poets whose works, collectively known as ‘Sangam literature’, defined the entire era: it came to be known as the ‘Sangam Age’. The word sangam is derived from the Sanskrit sangha, which translates to ‘association’ and ‘coming together’ — in this context, referring to an assembly of the poets. The Sangam literature, the oldest in south India, consists of several collections or anthologies of poems and is much consulted by historians who investigate the society and culture of the times. Primarily, Sangam poetry expresses with great skill and delicacy personal emotions such as love or societal values like heroism and generosity.
The Cholas
The Sangams refer to three ‘crowned kings’ — the Cholas, Cheras and Pānḍyas. The Cholas were a powerful dynasty that ruled parts of south India from the 3rd century BCE to the 13th century CE. The Chola king Karikāla is said to have defeated a combined force of the Cheras and Pānḍyas and established his supremacy.Silappadikāram: The Tale of the Anklet
This famous epic, composed soon after the Sangam collections, tells the story of Kaṇṇagi, who lived happily with her husband Kovalan in the prosperous Chola capital city of Puhār (identified with Kāveripattinam seen earlier). However, Kovalan fell in love with a dancer and eventually lost all his wealth over her. Realising his mistake, he returned to Kaṇṇagi, who forgave him. They then travelled to Madurai, the capital of the Pānḍya kingdom, hoping to rebuild their lives.
To start anew, Kaṇṇagi gave Kovalan one of her anklets to sell; however, he was falsely accused of theft and executed by the Pānḍya king. Devastated, Kaṇṇagi proved his innocence by revealing her second anklet. The king, realising his mistake, died of shock. Kaṇṇagi then cursed Madurai, invoking the god of fire who destroyed the city. She then walked further west to the Chera kingdom, where she was honoured as a goddess. Even today, Kaṇṇagi is worshipped in Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
Silappadikāram’s exquisite poetry thus centres on the principles of justice and the ruler’s dharma to protect it. It also takes us through cities rich in traded goods, through three kingdoms, and also through several schools of thought.THINK ABOUT IT
Observe the statue of the
king. How is he depicted?
What do his posture, clothing,
and expression say about his
power and status?
Fig. 6.16. Statue of King Karikāla at
the Grand Anicut Memorial Park in
Tamil Nadu
The Cheras
Also known as the Keralaputra (sons of Kerala), the Cheras ruled over the western parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, with their capital at Vanji, present-day Karur in Tamil Nadu. They played an essential role in shaping the region’s cultural and economic history, encouraging the growth of Tamil literature and patronising Sangam poets.The Cheras were known for their extensive trade connections with the Roman Empire and West Asia, exporting many goods from India to the outside world. The kingdom became a hub for the export of spices, timber, ivory and pearls.
THINK ABOUT IT
Have you ever wondered how historians uncover the trade
relations between two distant kingdoms many centuries
ago? Let’s take a moment to brainstorm and discuss how this
information comes to light.
The Pānḍyas
The Pānḍyas’ rule over parts of Tamil Nadu and the surrounding regions, with their capital at present-day Madurai, goes back several centuries BCE. Successive kings expanded the Pāndyan kingdom. In his work Indika, Megasthenes mentions this kingdom as a prosperous one, with a strong administration and involved in active trade with distant powers like the Greeks and Romans, apart from much internal trade (Khāravela, for instance, states that he gets hundreds of pearls brought from the Pānḍya kingdom). The Pānḍyas were also an important naval power of the subcontinent. The later Pānḍyas also contributed greatly to the art, architecture, and overall prosperity of the region.THINK ABOUT IT
The Pānḍyas were known for their pearls. Why do you think
pearls were an important article of trade during these times?
Invasions of the Indo-Greeks
Having completed our brief journey into south India, it is time to return to the north, where a very different kind of development is about to occur. So far, we have only visited a few native dynasties; yet the same period also witnessed the arrival of invaders who entered through the northwest frontier and took control of the northwestern, northern, and central regions of the Subcontinent.
Let us first examine the legacy of Alexander’s brief campaign in the Indus plains. While retreating from the areas he had conquered, he left satraps behind. Over time, these regional rulers established their independent domains and came to be known as ‘Indo-Greeks’.
After the decline of the Mauryas, the areas in the northwestern regions (roughly present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan) were an easy target for the Indo-Greeks. However, while they arrived as conquerors, they were much influenced by the rich local culture. This cultural interaction led to a blend of Greek and Indian elements in governance, art, language, and daily life, shaping the cultural landscape of the region.
The Heliodorus pillar, near Vidisha (Madhya Pradesh), is a notable example of such connections. It is named after an Indo Greek ambassador, who in his inscription praises Vāsudeva as the ‘god of gods’. The inscription also states, “Three immortal precepts (footsteps) [...] when practised lead to heaven: self restraint, charity, consciousness.”
During excavations in north India, archaeologists have found many Indo-Greeks coins, which have provided most of the information we have about these rulers. Those coins were made of gold, silver, copper and nickel often portraying a king on one side and Greek deities on the other. However, some coins, instead, depicted Indian deities like Vāsudeva-Kṛiṣhṇa and Lakṣhmī. The rule of the Indo-Greeks ended with the invasions of the Indo-Scythians or Śhakas (see a little below).What do you think might have been the meaning of having deities like Vāsudeva-Kṛiṣhṇa or Lakṣhmī on some Indo-Greek coins?
The Śhakas (sometimes called Indo-Scythians) also invaded the northwest of the Subcontinent and ruled from the latter part of the 2nd century BCE to the 5th century CE. Their kingdoms rose to power after the Indo-Greeks, and they were in power until the arrival of the Kuṣhāṇas (see below). It was during this period that the Śhaka Samvat calendar was developed. It is 78 years behind the Gregorian calendar (except from January–March, when it is behind by 79 years). It was adopted as the Indian National Calendar in 1957.
The Emergence of the Kuṣhāṇas
The Kuṣhāṇas, originally from central Asia, entered India probably in the 2nd century CE. At its peak, their empire extended from central Asia to large parts of northern India. Their rule marked a period of extensive cultural intermixing and had a profound impact on the history of the Indian subcontinent.When he was not busy with his military campaigns, Kaṇiṣhka encouraged art and culture, leading to the development of new artistic styles.
Carefully observe this massive statue (1.85 m high) and notice the clothing, weapon, and footwear. What does it tell us about this figure?
This famous ‘headless’ statue is of King Kaṇiṣhka,
probably the most powerful ruler of the Kuṣhāṇa
dynasty. The Brahmi inscription on the statue
reads, ‘mahārāja rājadhirāja devaputra kaṇiṣhka’,
that is, ‘The great king, king of kings, son of God,
Kaṇiṣhka’.
Observe the coins carefully. Who, besides the emperor, appears on the coin?
On the first coin, Kāṇiṣhka is shown holding a spear, titled
‘King of Kings’, while the other side features Buddha with the
inscription BOΔΔO (Buddha) in Greek script. On the second coin,
an emperor appears on one side, and Śhiva with the bull Nandi
on the other. Let’s reflect on the following:
- Why would a powerful ruler feature Buddha and Śhiva on his coins? What does it say about his values and priorities?
- Can you find modern examples of such symbolic currency?
The Kuṣhāṇas held control over significant sections of the Silk Route (on the next page), and during their reign, trade grew, connecting India with other parts of Asia and the West.
Continuing the trend set under the Indo-Greek rulers, Kuṣhāṇa art and architecture, exemplified by the Gāndhāra and Mathurā schools of art, are celebrated for their fusion of Indian and Greek styles. The sculptures feature a variety of deities reflecting the peaceful co-existence of various schools of thought. This era saw the rise of representations of deities — like Sūrya or the sun god — which looked more similar to humans and the increase in the development of religious art, laying the groundwork for later temple architecture in the subcontinent.
The Gāndhāra style, which emerged in the
western regions of Punjab, blended Greco
Roman elements with Indian features. Most
sculptures and artefacts from this tradition
were crafted in intricate detail from grey
black schist stone. In particular, sculptors
produced many fine Buddha images with
realistic anatomy and flowing robes.
THINK ABOUT IT
Do you know where Gāndhāra is? Does it remind you of a
character from the epic Mahābhārata?
The Mathurā style developed in the Mathura region of present day Uttar Pradesh and is known for its distinct Indian style. Unlike the Gāndhāra style, it primarily used red sandstone for its sculptures and reflects less influence from Greco Roman aesthetics. This art form is known for its depictions of Indian deities, including Kubera, Lakṣhmī, Śhiva, Buddha, yakṣhas and yakṣhiṇīs and generally produced fuller figures with smooth modelling.
Now that you are familiar with the basic characteristics of the Mathurā and Gāndhāra styles of art, study the pictures of artefacts given in Fig. 6.27 on the right page and try to identify which school of art each artefact belongs to. Write your observations with justifications and discuss your answers with your classmates.
Despite the political conflicts and power struggles, the period saw remarkable cultural exchange and assimilation. This shared heritage is evident in art and architecture, where styles interacted, but with a dominance of Indian themes (especially Hindu and Buddhist ones). It was also the age when Sanskrit literature flourished, with, in particular, the composition of major Indian texts such as the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyana (refer to the chapter “Unity in Diversity, or ‘Many in the One’ ” in your Grade 6 textbook).
Recognising these connections encourages us to view this ‘Tapestry of the Past’ not as confined to any one kingdom or ruler, but as a dynamic process that works through interaction and assimilation over time.
Before we move on …
- The period after the disintegration of the Maurya empire was characterised by the emergence of many big and small kingdoms across the Subcontinent.
- The internal conflicts were coupled with foreign invasions,
which together led to a period of reorganisation of political
powers.
- This period witnessed a dialogue of various cultures that
absorbed each other’s influence to create new styles of art,
architecture, coinage, etc., with ultimately a dominance of
Indian themes and flourishing Sanskrit literature.
- This time was also marked by remarkable developments in
trade activities, both internal and external.
Questions and activities
1. Why was the post-Maurya era also known as the era of reorganisation?
2. Write a note on the Sangam literature in 150 words.
3. Which rulers mentioned in this chapter included their mother’s name in their title, and why did they do so?
4. Write a note of 250 words about one kingdom from this chapter that you find interesting. Explain why you chose it. After presenting your note in class, find out what kingdoms have been the most selected by your classmates.
5. Imagine you have the chance to create your own kingdom. What royal emblem would you choose, and why? What title would you take as the ruler? Write a note about your kingdom, including its values, rules and regulations, and some unique features.
6. You have read about the architectural developments of the post-Maurya era. Take an outline of the Indian subcontinent and mark the approximate locations of some of the ancient structures mentioned in this chapter.
