"The greatest punishment for being unwilling to rule is being ruled by someone worse than oneself." — Hitopadeśha

Learn to make the whole world your own. No one is a stranger, my child; the whole world is your own."

 — – Socrates, Greek philosopher
(in ‘The Republic’ by Plato c. 380 BCE)

Tiers of Government

LET'S REMEMBER

This is an illustration from your Grade 6 textbook. Do you recall that we discussed the need for a system of governance, commonly referred to as a government? There are three main functions that governments perform — making laws (legislature), carrying out laws and making policies (executive), and ensuring laws are followed (judiciary). We also looked briefly at the three levels of government in India and their functions.

In the chapter ‘From the Rulers to the Ruled: Types of Government’ in Part 1 of this textbook, we also came across some of the different forms of government in the world. We learned about democratic, monarchic, theocratic, dictatorial, and oligarchic forms of government, and how they function differently. Can you recount some of the differences?

In this chapter, we will look closely at the difference between a ‘state’ and a ‘government’, the difference between ‘democracy’ and ‘republic’, and how our government is structured.

What is a State?

A state (or a nation) is a political organisation that has the authority to govern a defined territory and its population.

A state has four important parts:

We often hear the words ‘state’ and ‘government’ used as if they mean the same thing. But they are not truly the same, even though they are closely related.

So, a state has four features — a defined territory, a permanent population, a government, and sovereignty.

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What is a Government?

The government is a group of people or a system that runs the country. It includes leaders, ministers, and officials who,

• make laws,
• enforce laws,
• resolve disputes.

The government is just one part of the state. It can change after elections, but the state remains the same. Think of the state as a school, and the government as the principal and teachers. Teachers may come and go, but the school remains.

Why are these two words used interchangeably?

In real life, we often say “the state did this” or “the government decided that” as if they mean the same thing. This is because the government acts on behalf of the state, and is the face of the state that we see in action every day.

So, while the words are different in meaning, people often mix them up because —

• the government runs the daily work of the state;
• we usually interact with the government, not the whole state.

LET'S EXPLORE

These departments form part of the executive function of the government. They implement the policies and laws made by the legislature. The judiciary, in turn, ensures that these laws are followed. Together, the legislature, executive, and judiciary form the three key pillars of government. However, in our daily lives, we primarily interact with the various departments that form part of the executive.

In an earlier chapter, we surveyed the different forms of governments that exist, or have existed, across the world, including democracies, monarchies, theocracies, dictatorships, and oligarchies. We saw how democracies give people the power to choose their leaders, and how this differs from governments where power stays within one family or group. In a democracy like India, the government is expected to work for everyone’s wellbeing and protect our rights and freedoms.

In some countries, the legislature, executive and judiciary are separate, while in others they may overlap.

Democracy and Republic

Your textbook carries the Preamble to the Constitution. Notice how the Constitution makers used the words ‘democratic’ and ‘republic’ together. Why did they, when ‘democracy’ and ‘republic’ are often used interchangeably? Though political scientists discuss the distinction between these two concepts in detail, we will look at it in a simplified way.

British rule in India persisted for nearly two centuries. When India got Independence, she did not blindly adopt the British parliamentary system. Among the many discussions and debates that took place during the making of our Constitution, one was on the type of parliamentary democracy that India should have.

People in both India and the UK elect their representatives, and the government is accountable to parliament. The British, however, have had a monarch (a king or a queen) as the head of state for centuries. On the other hand, the makers of our Constitution decided that India’s head of state, the president, would be elected — not directly by the people, but by a group of elected representatives. (We will get into the details of this process in Grade 8.)

This brings us to the difference between a democracy and a republic.

The core idea of a democracy is ʻrule by the people’ (demos = people, kratos = rule). In a democracy, people have the power to choose their government through free and fair elections.

In a republic, the head of state (the highest office) is elected and not hereditary. Very simply, a republic is a form of government where the head of state is elected (directly or indirectly) by the people, rather than being a king or queen who inherits power. Moreover, in a republic, there are limitations set on the power of rulers through a constitution or laws.

Note that a country can be both a democracy and a republic, e.g., India or the U.S.A. But not all democracies are republics; for example, the UK, Canada, and Sweden are democracies but not republics — they each have a monarch.

India, a Republic that Protects the Rights of All

India is a democratic republic, and its constitution guarantees fundamental rights to all its citizens. Constitutional provisions and the law ensure that rule by a representative majority does not violate the fundamental rights of any citizen.

Why is the protection of rights important?

Let us take an example. As per its rulebook, a Resident Welfare Association (RWA) had banned deliveries after 9 pm in its apartment complex. This rule was based on a majority vote; it ignored the view of a minority of residents, who argued that such a ban would affect the sick and the elderly. Was this a fair rule?

One night, an elderly resident collapsed because of low blood sugar, as the medicine she needed could not be delivered to her flat in time. The RWA modified its rule to exclude food and medicines from the ban, protecting the voice of the minority.

That’s a republic in action — where the rule of law is more powerful than the wishes of the majority. This is how republics like India, France, and the USA defend against the ‘dominance of the majority’. It stops the powerful majority from unfairly hurting the rights of smaller groups.

The Constitution ensures that no part of the government becomes too powerful. The elected leaders cannot pass laws that go against people’s basic rights — like freedom of speech, religion, or equality before the law.

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According to Kauṭilya, the author of Arthashastra, the king, the primary authority of the state, has to follow Raja Dharma and have a good governance system. He should ensure law and order. If there is no government, society will become chaotic with the big fish, i.e., the more powerful, eating the smaller fish.

In India, the state operates through institutions such as the legislature, executive, and judiciary. The state claims the legitimate use of power, for example, through control by the police and taxation.

Legislature: The Lawmaking Body

The legislature is a branch of the government that makes laws for the country. In a democracy, the legislature represents the people and creates rules that apply to everyone. It ensures that governance happens through well-defined laws rather than personal wishes or arbitrary decisions. The states, too, have their own legislatures. They make laws only for the state.

Executive: The Law-Implementing and Policymaking Body

The executive organ is primarily responsible for implementing or executing the laws formulated by the legislature and taking policy decisions.

The executive: political and permanent

In every country, the government needs someone to enforce laws, design and implement policies, and manage the day-to-day activities of the government (administration). The executive does this important job. The executive is not just one person or one group; rather, it has two parts that work together — the political executive and the permanent executive. While the Constitution of India does not explicitly define the ‘political executive’ and the ‘permanent executive’, this distinction is an inherent part of India’s parliamentary system, derived from constitutional principles and governance conventions.

Political executive

The political executive consists of leaders who are elected by the people. These include the prime minister, chief ministers, and their ministers, as well as the president and governors (though the last two mostly have formal or symbolic roles).

These elected leaders are responsible for making big decisions, introducing new laws, setting goals for the country, and representing India in other countries. Since they are chosen in elections, they stay in power for a fixed time — usually five years — unless they are re-elected or dismissed by the president (we will explore this further in Grade 8). Their power depends on the trust and support of the people.

Permanent executive

The permanent executive includes government officers who are not elected but are selected through examinations like those conducted by the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC). They are also called bureaucrats or civil servants.

Unlike politicians, these officers are not removed or replaced after every election. They work in the background to keep the government running smoothly, no matter which party is in power. Their job is to offer expert advice, implement policies, and manage public services.

Some key functions of the bureaucracy are —

• Implementing laws, policies, and schemes: Bureaucrats ensure that laws and government programs and schemes passed by the political executive are appropriately implemented across the country.
• Creating a link between citizens and the government: Through various departments and field offices, bureaucrats interact with the public, deliver services such as public schools, roads, and hospitals, and address grievances.
• Record-keeping and governance: They keep records of government work, decisions, and procedures.

The bureaucracy is a hierarchical structure, as can be seen in this chart (Fig. 6.11). Such structures exist at the level of the district and block, too.

In India, the most well-known bureaucracies are the Indian Foreign Service (IFS), the Indian Administrative Service (IAS), the Indian Police Service (IPS), Indian Revenue Service (IRS) and the Indian Forest Service (IFoS). There are a large number of officers working in these systems (see Fig 6.11 for an example). Our interactions are usually with the bureaucrats serving at the grassroots — government school teachers, anganwadi workers, health workers, water and sanitation workers, or bus conductors. The bureaucracy manages large-scale programs like the census, national elections, disaster relief, and the rollout of welfare schemes such as the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) or the COVID-19 vaccination drive.

Chonira Belliappa Muthamma(1924 2009), born in Karnataka, became the first woman to clear the examination for public services in 1948 and the first woman to join the Indian Foreign Service in 1949, although a strong gender bias prevailed. Women, for instance, “were made to sign an undertaking that they would resign if they got married,” as C.B. Muthamma wrote later. Nevertheless, she managed to conduct a distinguished diplomatic career, eventually serving as India’s first woman ambassador in several countries.

When she was unjustly denied promotion, Muthamma approached the Supreme Court; a bench led by Justice V.R. Krishna Iyer struck down gender-biased provisions as violating the Constitution and made strong comments on the Ministry of External Affairs’ record of discrimination against women. Muthamma’s struggle thus remains a defining milestone in the pursuit of gender equality in Indian public service.

C.B. Muthamma wrote on a number of public issues, from the decolonisation of the Indian mind to Indian democracy. In one of her essays, she pointed to the “unbounded freedom of thought and belief” characteristic of Indian religions as being “the single most important factor that makes democracy possible in this country”.

We will delve into the structure and process of lawmaking in the chapter ‘The Parliamentary System: Legislature and Executive’ in Grade 8.

The Government and You

The Government of India plays the triple role of protector (law and defence), provider (public welfare and infrastructure), and regulator (of economic activity and social justice). As examples, the government maintains law and order to protect the people through police forces, provides education free for children by building schools and hiring teachers, constructs infrastructure like roads, bridges, railways, and airports, and takes initiatives to ensure food safety.

The above roles of the government are executed through India’s Constitution, thousands of laws, many layers of elected representatives, a vast bureaucracy, and a judiciary (brief description in the next section), all of which help us greatly in our daily lives. However, you might wonder why, then, our country and her people also still face so many problems. Why do we still hear of cases of bribery and corruption in public office? We still encounter many issues that need to be addressed — people in difficult socio-economic conditions, lack of access to good education and healthcare, infrastructure that is of poor quality, inadequate access to government schemes, and so on.

How do you make or help the government do what it is meant to do? How do you ensure that your grievances with the government are addressed?

Here are a few things you can do!

1. Grievance redressal: Many government departments have grievance redressal offices where you can file your grievance. The government also has vigilance commissions to investigate matters of corruption. You can approach them if you find cases of corruption. Today there are mechanisms like the Public Grievances Portal (https://pgportal.gov.in/) where one can lodge complaints and grievances. The concerned government department will respond within a specified time period. Several states also have such portals.
2. Ask the government for information about its policies and actions: India has a powerful Act called the Right to Information Act (RTI), through which we can ask for information about government actions of public interest. For example, you could ask about how much money was spent on building roads in your neighbourhood, a list of beneficiaries of government schemes, such as a merit scholarship, the status of infrastructure projects like the metro line etc. Officials are bound to provide information under this Act, and the information brings transparency and accountability.

Bagepalli is a small town near Bengaluru. Several years ago, some government officials thought Bagepalli would be better off with double roads and streetlights. The work was carried out in a very unprofessional manner, making traffic movement difficult and causing numerous accidents. A local citizen filed an RTI to get information about finances allocated for the work. Armed with this information, a group of citizens confronted the concerned officials, who later ensured that the roadwork was completed to the satisfaction of all concerned.

3. Use the media: Write in print or electronic media about a particular issue on which the government can take action. Many government officials are active on social media. You can also use social media platforms like YouTube, X (formerly Twitter), Facebook or Instagram to share your concerns and tag the corresponding officials.
4. Engage through a civil society organisation (such as an NGO): India has thousands of citizen groups, collectively termed as civil society, which work on issues like education, health, environment, livelihood, women empowerment, etc. One can join any of those (or create one!) to push the government to address an issue you care deeply about.

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In 1970, the Kerala Government planned a massive hydroelectric project in the Silent Valley, which would have submerged vast tracts of untouched evergreen forests and destroyed their immense biodiversity, including much wildlife. Many non-government organisations mobilised public opinion against the construction of the dam, soon joined by hundreds of scientists, environmentalists, writers, public figures, teachers, and local villagers. Eventually, in 1983, the Central Government intervened and cancelled the project. Two years later, the Silent Valley was declared a National Park, ensuring its lasting protection.




5. Write to political representatives: You can write a letter to your local representatives, ministers, or parliamentarians, seeking action on a particular issue.
6. Vote in elections: Once you are old enough to vote, make sure to participate and vote in local, state, and national elections, and thereby help to ensure that the leaders who care most about the issues you care about, and have the best plans for them, are elected to office.

Judiciary: the ‘Watchdog’

The judiciary is the part of the government that makes sure everyone follows the law. It settles disputes, protects people’s rights, and checks whether the laws made by the government are fair and just. In a democracy like India, the judiciary is independent — it is not controlled by the government or politicians. This helps keep justice fair and equal for all.

What does the judiciary do?

• Protects and defends the laws: It makes sure that the laws are followed properly.
• Interprets the laws: It explains what a law means when the wording is complex or when people disagree on its meaning.
• Protects the rights and liberty of citizens: It protects the rights and freedoms given by the Constitution. If fundamental rights are violated, we can go to court to address the violations.
• Safeguards the Constitution through judicial review: It acts as a referee when the government or others break the law.

Why is the judiciary important?

The judiciary protects the rule of law, that is, the idea that everyone must follow the law, even the government. It keeps a check on unfair actions, ensures laws don’t harm people’s rights, and resolves conflicts peacefully. Without a strong and fair judiciary, democracy cannot survive.

We will delve deeper into the judiciary in India in Grade 8.

Tiers of Government

LET'S REMEMBER

India is a vast and diverse country with over 1.4 billion people, thousands of towns and villages, and many languages and cultures. As a federal country, India has 28 states and 8 union territories, and a single central (union) government cannot meet the needs of all her people. Therefore, governance in such a large country must be decentralised at multiple levels.

Originally, the Constitution provided for only two levels of government, the Union Government (for the entire country) and the state governments (for each state). Local governments, such as panchayats and municipalities, were not separate constitutional levels at that time. They were listed under the State List, which means that state governments could decide how they worked.

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In the early 1990s, the Constitution was amended to create the panchayati raj system and the system of municipalities for towns and cities. Together, these made local governments the ‘third tier’ of India’s democracy, the other two being the union and state governments. This was done to strengthen democracy at the grassroots and enable people to participate directly in decision-making.

What is decentralisation?

‘Decentralisation’ means that power and decision-making are spread out and not concentrated in just one place or one small group. Local problems should be solved locally, and bigger issues can be solved by higher-level governments such as the state or the central government.

THINK ABOUT IT

LET'S EXPLORE

Generally, decisions regarding local matters are taken at the level closest to the people. Tasks that can be performed locally should be left in the hands of the local people and their representatives. The local municipal body can do it faster.

But if the country’s defence is at stake, that is the responsibility of the central government.

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The working of the three levels of the school education system

In India, schools are not managed by a single person or office. Let us see how the different levels of government play different, yet interconnected, roles to ensure that every child gets their right to education.

LET'S EXPLORE

Before we move on …

-> The state and the government are different, but sometimes the terms are used interchangeably. The state is a larger concept that includes the citizens of a country, the territory of the country. It is sovereign, i.e., it has the independence to make its laws without any outside control. It has a government that makes and implements laws to run the country.

-> A republic is a form of government where the head of state is elected (directly or indirectly) by the people, rather than being a king or queen who inherits power. In a republic, the powers of the head of state are limited through a constitution or laws.

-> The three pillars or organs of the government are the legislature, the executive, and the judiciary.

-> In India, there are also three levels of government — union (central), state, and panchayat / municipalities.

-> The Constitution of India forms the fundamental and basic framework for the structure of our government. It ensures that there are ‘checks and balances’ among the three organs of the government. It also ensures that the three levels of government work together for the people without excessive centralisation.

-> The media plays an important role in democracy — it keeps the citizens informed and provides a platform for discussion and debate.

-> Civil society organisations (NGOs) play a critical role in raising issues, and also working with government to solve them.

-> The permanent executive consisting of civil servants or bureaucrats implement laws and policies devised by the government.