I. Introducing Translation

India, as one of the oldest knowledge bases, has a cherished tradition of translation. In a sense the people of our country are natural translators since most people here are at least bilingual. If we speak, for instance, Marathi or Punjabi at home as our mother tongue, we inevitably pick up another language, Gujarati or Tamil or any other language, spoken generally in the region we live in. And then at school, we learn at least three languages. By the time we are adults, we are often familiar with more than two languages, and we develop the skill to shift from one language to another naturally. You can see how newsreaders of some of the popular television channels in India use this faculty so effectively. In order to translate we need to become aware of other languages and then consciously hone and develop our skills in translation.

The following extract from Rabindranath Tagore’s Kabuliwala has been translated from the Bangla into Hindi and English.

Read the following Hindi and English translations of the extract from Kabuliwala.

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A pooling and sharing of knowledge is indeed possible only when special efforts are made to cross language boundaries. The best tool employed for this purpose is translation which deserves special attention in our multilingual context.

In many Indian languages, we have a great legacy of translations from various classical languages such as Persian, Arabic, Sanskrit on the one hand and from foreign modern languages such as Russian, German, French, on the other. Also, translations amongst Indian languages themselves have made the significant works of one language available in other languages as well. Thanks to translations we have been able to access and read such great writers as Rabindranath Tagore, Prem Chand and Subramaniam Bharati in our own languages. Sometimes these translations have happened through link languages such as English and Hindi. For example, Kalidasa’s Abhigyanashakuntalam is read the world over. This has been made possible because of its translation into many languages. Given below is an excerpt from Abhigyanashakuntalam (Act IV) and its translations in Hindi and English.

It may be pointed out here how Kalidasa’s well-known play, Abhigyanashakuntalam, demonstrates the coexistence of many language groups in the same geographical area. This play was written in Sanskrit and also uses Saurasheni, Maharastri and Magadhi, clearly showing how multilinguality was a given fact portrayed realistically in a literary text.

Here is an extract from Premchand’s Shatranj ke Khiladi (The Chess Players) from a collection of his short stories which have been translated from the Hindi to English. Read the extract and its translation carefully and identify the sentences/words that convey the meaning but are not literal translations. Discuss in class.

Translation is a faculty that brings us closer to alien cultures and societies not only through their literatures but also their films and other electronic media — through subtitling and dubbing. A lot of news that we get through newspapers, radio and television, too, is translated from various languages for it to be comprehensive.

Translation also opens a window to the world as we get to know the works of great writers, critics, scientists and other intellectuals from various regions and countries. The following extracts are examples of translations of writings from different parts of the world.

The following is a Hindi translation of the preceding passage.

Here is a passage from Alice in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll followed by the Hindi translation.

With the explosion of information and the ever-expanding information technology in contemporary times, the big question that looms over us is how to access diverse knowledge and how to convey in the target language the human sensitivities of the original. Indeed, in a country such as India where there are multiple languages, each language is a rich storehouse of knowledge and literary traditions.

What is Translation?

Translation essentially implies transference of material from one language to another. Since each language carries within itself its own culture and temper, the process of translation demands that the translator be adequately equipped with (i) knowledge of what is called the source language as well as the target language, and (ii) knowledge of the culture of each of the languages to be able to comprehend the source language and then find appropriate equivalent words/phrases in the target language. A literal translation, word for word, can be ‘faithful’ but not beautiful; in fact, at times, a literal translation may even distort the meaning. For example, while a person can be as wise as an ‘owl’ in English, in Hindi, an owl (ullu) is considered to be stupid!

The translator has to understand the context and the culture within which certain words are used and then work out a way to translate them in a suitable manner. This may require not just lexical meanings from dictionaries but also research into the cultures of the source and the target languages. Metaphors, proverbs, symbols, idioms, on the one hand, and, on the other, abuses, kinship terms etc. are all markers of culture. They pose a big challenge to the translator since their meaning is embedded in specific cultures.

Here are some examples of metaphors and phrasal verbs in Hindi and English.

Humour and even colours can be culture specific. What is celebratory in one culture can be mournful in another. An English bride, for example, dresses in white, while white may be perceived as the colour of mourning in some cultures. It is the translator’s job to know such cultural differences and render the translation accordingly.

One thing common amongst different kinds of translation is its main function, that is, to build bridges and create a dialogue between different languages, different cultures. In Arabic, the word for translation is tarjuman — the process of mediation between languages. Translation, then, expands the knowledge sphere for humanity and makes room for diversity of cultures through understanding, caring and accommodation of diversity of cultures. Here is an extract from a text originally written in Urdu. (Ask any of your friends who can read Urdu to read the passage aloud.) The writer, Ismat Chugtai, is widely read in many languages today.

Translation — Its Role and Relevance

Thanks to the vibrant linguistic plurality around us, most of us are at least bilingual. As a result we are actually natural translators, shifting easily from one language to another. We may dream in one language, converse in another and write in yet another language. But, indeed, with globalisation and the world shrinking, one or two languages may just become too dominating to allow others to survive. If we make concerted efforts to understand the different cultures/language groups, there may be hope for their survival through the respect accorded to each for its rich literary and cultural traditions that have evolved over centuries. One of the most effective ways of building such cross-cultural bridges has been translation, i.e. making the rich storehouse of knowledge of one language accessible to the other.

Jawaharlal Nehru in his book Discovery of India (Hindustan ki Kahani) has written about the importance of languages. An extract from the text with its translation in Hindi is given below.

For a meaningful exchange of ideas and an effective sustenance of cross-cultural dialoguing, honing translation skills is the most natural device. An example of the ‘dialoguing’ between Sanskrit and Persian is demonstrated in Dara Shikoh’s masterpiece translation of the Upanishads from Sanskrit into Persian, Sirr-e-Akbar (The Great Secret), completed in 1657 with the help of several pundits from Varanasi. Not only is this translation an evidence of the ‘interaction’ between two classical languages, it also shows how two cultures were engaged in understanding each other through the translation of seminal texts into each other’s languages. Translations of this kind contributed significantly towards building a composite culture in the Indian subcontinent.

While it is important for the translator to have adequate language competence to be able to translate effectively, it is important to note that the process of translation in itself leads to language learning.

The process of translation brings one into a very intimate relationship with at least two languages. The role of translation in language learning is immense. Language conservation and then linguistic proficiency, as we discussed earlier, are surely the crux of all translation activities.

As linguists tell us, thanks to extensive translation in some languages, linguistic changes result from the influence of one language on the other. Sometimes this influence is so pronounced that even the structure of these languages may change due to constant translations from one into the other. Also, if some terms are so culture specific that translation is not possible, the scope of the target language expands through the introduction of new words transferred from the source language as new words and phrases may also get created within the target language to translate such terms. For example, words such as pucca, sahib etc. have become part of the English language.

In business transactions too, cross-cultural dialoguing plays a vital role. Unless one has mastered the art of communication with the help of interpretation and translation, it may not be possible to build business relationships with other cultures. Whether for entertainment or even advertising or commerce, it is through translation and cultural understanding that the process of reaching out can be achieved. To be competent in this field, one has to equip oneself with linguistic and translation skills.

Understanding Translation

At the outset, let us understand the literal meaning of the word ‘translation’ as it is used in some languages. Different cultures, no doubt, may conceptualise translation differently at different times. For instance, the word ‘translation’ in English comes from the Latin word ‘transferee’ which means ‘carrying something across’. This is indicative of the linguistic and cultural borders which need to be crossed for something to be taken from one side to the other.

In Sanskrit a translator is a bhasantarakari, meaning ‘other language maker’. Clearly this recognises, in the process of translation, the ‘difference’ of language (which is the carrier of culture), along with the idea of making something anew by the translator. But there are other words for translation in Sanskrit. Chayanuharanam suggests that translation is ‘reflection’, thus emphasising similarity between the two texts; and then there is also the word, anuvadahmeaning ‘saying after’. Derived from Sanskrit, the word used for translation in Hindi too isanuvad, suggesting both, the primacy of the source text and also the recreation of another.

In Hungarian, Finnish and some other languages the word for translation points towards the ‘difference’ between the source and the target text. The Finnish word kaannos, used for translation, literally means ‘a turn or a turning’ which shows how the translated text is thought to be taking a turn from the basic text. It is very interesting that the slang connotation of the Finnish verb kaantaa is ‘to steal’. Does this imply that translation is to be seen as a theft of some substance from some source? To add to this perspective, let us remember that the classical god of translators was Hermes who was also the god of thieves!

This brings us to a very significant juncture in our study of what is translation. When someone said that translation can be seen as stealing something from the ‘original’, a very important question throws itself up: Is the process of translation creative or just a replication or a copy?

Creativity and Translation

To translate, inevitably means a reconstruction of the text. Translation, therefore, calls for a lot of creativity to first decode an existent text for its comprehension and internalisation, and then recode it into a new text in another language. The new text is a re-creation that has to stand in total autonomy, free of the ‘original’ text and complete in itself. Walter Benjamin has said that translation is “afterlife”.

Linguistic transformation, we must remember, implies to a large extent a cultural transformation too. This is similar to saying that a lot can be lost in translation and a lot can also be gained in translation. Each language bears within itself its own cultural baggage. That is why when the source text is translated into another language, it is necessary that the culture of the target language be negotiated. With adequate sensitivity and knowledge of the cultures of both the languages, the translator becomes a mediator who creates the scope and means to transfer the meaning and experience of the ‘original’ text into another language. Translation, said someone, is a cross-cultural transmission skill, a creative endeavour to build another linguistic structure to accommodate and contain what is otherwise quite foreign to it.

Since translation is filtered through the consciousness of the translator, it does indeed acquire the translator’s vision as well and gets transformed into something new, broadening the scope of the original and offering at times another view of the same thing. Literary translation is not merely a technical skill, but also an art form, not subservient to the original. The translator, thus, has to be equipped with adequate preparation and creativity along with the linguistic skills to be able to transcreate a text.

Read the following excerpt and its translation from Themes in Indian History — Part III for class XII. Do you think the translator has been able to translate the nuances of the researcher's record? Underline the words/phrases that you feel would have been difficult to translate.

Creativity and the Question of Faithfulness in Translation

Translation should seek maximum readability. The translated text should remain within the confines of faithful rendering. What has to be ideally achieved in the translated text is the perfect compromise between accuracy and a ‘creative’ reproduction of the same. When a classical text gets translated into a modern language, this can be considered to be its renewal, in that it becomes comprehensible to contemporary readers by getting charged with idioms and metaphors that are accessible. Though the reference point for such texts is the original old text, there is no doubt that without a severance from the original, the new text does not yield adequate joy of reading. The new translated texts come out of the aesthetics of translation and offer pleasure and a sense of beauty.

Does the passion for creativity make the translator a traitor who refuses to be ‘faithful’ to the original? Does such a translator run away with her/his own creativity? This translator may re-create a text that bears no resemblance with the source text. The interpretations, interpolations and assumptions used by the translator in the reconstructed text can lead it to a completely altered state, thus fitting in with the Italian saying, traduttori traditori meaning that the translator is a traitor!

When the translator is engaged in the process of a creative translation, there is indeed a possibility of her/him using a huge range of imaginative and cultural resources available for the reconstitution of the text. But a thorough research into the original resources for a full understanding of the source text should indeed be a priori. Some liberties, however, may be taken by the translator to make the translation more readable. For the target text to become a rich experience for the reader, the translator’s own linguistic skills and imaginative power are of great use. This kind of a translation is truly an experience in tight-rope walking!

Read the poem in English given below and compare its two translations in Hindustani and Hindi given after the poem.

Compare the language of both the translations and discuss the question of ‘correctness’, ‘faithfulness’ and ‘creativity’ in relation to the above two versions. Give examples to substantiate your points. Try to translate this poem in your own way.

The Question of ‘Originality’

While we discuss the creativity and autonomy of the ‘recreated’ texts, we must also remind ourselves why Indian literary history does not lay undue stress on ‘originality’. This gets illustrated by the fact that we see multiple creative translations/adaptations over time and space of the same texts in new avatars over and over again in Indian culture. The best examples lie in what is evidenced as different renderings of the two great epics from India, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana: Tulsidas in Hindi, Ezhuthacchan in Malayalam, Krittivas in Bengali, Kambar in Tamil, and Pampa in Kannada have rendered the Ramayana in their own way, and their versions have been accepted by the reading public in their respective language areas, in spite of variations, omissions, additions, interpolations etc. Either in totality or in portions and episodes, these texts are transmitted and recreated in different Indian languages, orally as well as in the written form, through interpretative, adaptive and transformative translations. This has been done in different literary genres and styles at different times. Some of the renderings become more original than what may be called the ‘original’ i.e. the source text! And, in one of the oral traditions of storytelling, called the Pandavani tradition of Chhattisgarh, the well-known tribal artist Teejan Bai musically narrates and enacts through dance the story of the Pandavas from theMahabharata, constantly innovating and interpreting in accordance with the need of her audience.

A linguistic transformation can lead, at times, to a total cultural conversion. For example, when Godavarish Mishra translated Charles Dicken’s A Tale of Two Cities (1859) into Oriya, he took a lot of liberty with the original text and created an adaptation called Athara sa Satara (1817). Instead of the French Revolution of 1789, the context of the novel was converted into that of the uprising organised in Orissa against the British in 1817.

The borders between ‘translation’ and ‘creative writing’ blur easily! For example, Agha Hashr Kashmiri adapted the text of King Lear and wrote Safed Khoon. This eminent Urdu playwright of the Parsi theatre was given the title of ‘Shakespeare of India.’ He wrote several original plays and translated many from the English. Extracts of Safed Khoon (adapted version of King Lear) and its transliteration are given below. You have already read the original extract from King Learin Unit II and can refer to it once again.

In which language do you think it has been adapted from the English text? Discuss in class. What makes you think so?

Translation and Transliteration

Translation produces a written or spoken text in a different language while retaining the original meaning. Transliteration transcribes something into another alphabet to represent letters and words written in one alphabet using the corresponding letters of another.

Following is the poem, Achchamillai, by Subramania Bharati in Tamil along with its translation and transliteration.

Creative Writing in English and Translation

“Oh! Is it a translation? I thought it was an original!”

The above exclamation can perhaps be reversed in the case of the following passage: “Oh! Is it an original? I thought it was a translation!”

“But Moorthy will not come tonight. Vasudev has finished his meal, and has washed his hands, and as he comes out Gangadhar is there with his son and his brother-in-law, and they all look towards the valley, where there is nothing but a well-like silence and the scattered whiffs of fireflies. From behind the Bebbur jungle comes the mournful cry of jackals, and from somewhere beyond the Puppur mountains comes the grunt of a cheetah or tiger, and the carts are already seen to pull up the Mena Ghats. Everybody goes from this side to that, and Rachanna swears he has seen the light and Madanna says he has seen it, too, and they all rise up…”

Read the above passage carefully. Do you think it is a translation? Or is it an original piece of writing in English? Notice that it sounds like a translation because the use of English language here clearly demonstrates how the idiom, the rhythm, the style as well as the mode of this writing belongs to a culture somewhat alien to the ‘English sensibility’ that is usually seen in original writing in English. This is because the English language here has ‘accommodated’ Kannada language and its culture and tone. This passage is from Raja Rao’s novel Kanthapurawritten originally in English in 1937 when the author said in the Preface to his novel: “We cannot write like the English. We should not. We can write only as Indians. We have grown to look at the large world as part of us… The tempo of Indian life must be infused into our English expression…” In such an act of writing, inevitably, translation gets infused into the process of creative writing in English in India. Clearly, there is a blurring of lines between ‘creative writing’ and ‘translation’ in such cases.

This writing, then, may be perceived as yet another type of translation! The process of translation combines with the act of writing in the very ‘original’ making of a novel, a short story, a poem etc.

II. Types of Translation

There are different registers of language and vocabulary for translation in different areas such as law, science, technology, medicine etc. One needs to be conversant with the nuances and the culture of the target language for literary translation. For legal, technical, medical translation one needs to know the terms and vocabulary specific to the field. Also, translation of news is a constant feature, both in the print as well as in the electronic media. Translation is an important faculty used by interpreters who mediate between two individuals who do not know each other’s language.

Translation in Print and Electronic Media

For the translation of news from different regions/states and countries, a large number of translators are employed by newspapers, radio, television etc. This kind of translation is generally a very ‘free’ translation, since the purpose is to communicate the news rather than look at the aesthetics of expression. Here, faithfulness to the content is considered more important. The authenticity of the news is verified and then transferred in another language for another community or society.

It is not easy to get authentic reports or facts unless one is able to use the locally specific information which is found usually in indigenous tongues and, many a time, one discovers howlers in newspapers in reports of news picked up from the local language. Due to bad translation, the story may get distorted and misrepresented. A news reporter, therefore, has to first of all select news from as wide a range of languages as possible and then a proper translation of the same must be done to convey the same appropriately to the readers.

For the overall development of the modern society, mass communication plays a vital role — through quick dissemination of information pertaining to different aspects of life to a wider public. In this respect, the different media such as newspapers, magazines, radio and television aim at collecting information and news from as many countries/states/regions and societies as possible, to attempt to inform, educate and persuade people towards certain action or change.

See xfrfof/ / Activity 27 on Page 182

For dubbing, sub-titling as well as for voice-overs in films and television, sensitive and good translation faculties are essential. For effective dubbing, the translated dialogue is synchronised with the lip movements and gestures of the actor in the film. The aim is to make the audience feel as if they are listening to actors actually speaking in the target language. Recent technology, interestingly, has developed a method of digital alteration of lip movement as well. As for sub-titling, translation of the source language dialogue into the target language is supplied in the form of synchronised captions, usually at the bottom of the screen. This has to be done carefully so that there is minimum disturbance to the source text. This kind of translation remains as close to the original as possible. Have you watched any film/song sequence dubbed in a different language? How was the experience? Was there any line that you would have translated differently?

For lack of competent and good quality translation skills, messages can get completely distorted and, at times, clumsy. It has been seen how a highly serious, even tragic, content can sometimes turn comic due to a bad representation of the same in translation! Thus, for the electronic media, it is crucial that more and more competent translators become available.

Translators as Interpreters

Advertising and Translation

For the world of commerce and marketing, advertising is an essential component as a form of mass communication. It is a powerful tool for the flow of information from the seller to the buyer as it influences and persuades people to act or believe. There are many special and specific reasons for using advertising in its several forms. Announcing a new product or service, expanding the market to include new buyers, announcing a modification or a price change, educating customers, challenging competition, recruitment of staff and attracting investors are a few such reasons. In the process of creating advertisements for all these reasons, choice of expression and language are of crucial importance. An advertisement created in one language for a particular region may not be effective in another region due to both, a difference of language as well as culture. It would have to be translated accordingly, for the purpose of communication to be served.

Governments too, at times, have to issue the same announcements in different languages to promote tourism or serve public interests and create awareness amongst people on various issues. Advertising gives the public the right to choose between many options, many brands. Again, for these options to become real options, people need to understand the message of the advertisement effectively. For this the right language and cultural communication has to be established by the advertiser. The language, to be properly understood, may have to be a dialect. Television, radio, the internet etc. have evolved as very popular means of advertising and have an impact on both the literate as well as the illiterate population of the country.

The use of advertising for the transmission of information dates back to ancient Greece and Rome, when criers and signs were used to carry information for advertising goods and services. This practice was continued even during the middle ages.

Scientific and Technical Translation

With the rapid advancement of science and technology, new words for new concepts, inventions and techniques have come into existence. Even dictionaries are not able to keep pace with the growth of vocabulary. There are serious problems of translating scientific and technical literature due to the lack of appropriate equivalents in different languages. Coining, borrowing and transliteration of words and terms is being adhered to in translation of such work. To remain up-to-date with knowledge production in these fields, and to carry on with scientific research more meaningfully, a lot of translation activity is encouraged. Scientific and technical translation is also a prerequisite for acquisition of technology as well as for the knowledge of its operation.

In science and technical translation, the language of translation has to be direct, precise and clear. Also, there has to be a standardisation of terms and concepts. The style must be impersonal and simple. The register used should be scientific with neither any rhyme scheme or deviation of meaning as in literary translation. The translator must have good command of both the subject matter and the language to be able to translate well.

Medical Translation

If you take a bottle of one of your prescribed medicines, you will see various types of information on it — the dosage, frequency of use, storage instructions, side effects, warnings etc. — often in more than one language. Translation is required for distribution of medicines and medical devices in different regions and countries. In many countries, where the medicines have to be sold, translation of all information listed above is mandatory. The translators of such materials must be highly aware of the source and target languages and cultures as well as the subject they will translate. Such translations have to meet all local as well as international regulatory guidelines.

Pharmaceutical and medical translation requires complete attention to detail and indepth subject-matter expertise because poor translation can lead to misinterpretation and great risk to peoples’ health.

Academic Translation

For academic translation you have to be well-versed in the subject. Keen observation and attention to detail is a must. Following is an example from Themes in Indian History, Part II, forclass XII. The information recorded by Ibn Battuta in Arabic has become widely available for readers from different disciplines and cultures because of translation. This is true of academic exercises in general.

Legal Translation

For legal translation, the translator has to have a thorough knowledge of legal terms and be aware of the specificity of legal language because certain terms have specific connotations. For example, in a classroom an assignment means a task allotted to the students whereas in legal terms it refers to transfer of ownership. The assignment of copyright by an author or composer to a third party would mean that this party now has control and ownership over the copyright i.e. sale or reproduction of the artist’s work. Find two terms that you use commonly that have different meanings in different contexts.

Machine Translation

In today’s context, at the global level too, machine translation has become a flourshing industry. There is a great demand for a large number of expert translators, and technology is required to assist in translating enormous volumes of documents, though, of course, machine translation cannot be a substitute for human input.

Rapid and large volumes of translation are now becoming possible with the advent of new technologies. With adequate human resources and technological development, machine translation can facilitate massive translations. Once equipped with such necessary digital tools as bilingual dictionaries, thesaurus, software for ‘translation memory’ etc., machine translation will offer easy opportunities for exchange and transmission of knowledge. The machine can take on the intra-lingual translation of large bodies of knowledge available in many languages for a much faster overall progress and development of humanity.

Literary Translation

Literary translation presents its own challenges, some of which we have discussed earlier in this chapter. The translator translates a poem, a short story or any other form of literature because she/he is ‘moved’ and ‘touched’ by it in the original language and wishes to carry it to another language, to recreate that experience for others alien to the original language of the text. 

To do this, a mere transference of ‘content’, theme or ‘meaning’ of the original will not suffice. An effective translation attempts carrying across to the other language the very flavour, the tone, mood, emotional content and the thought pattern of the source text. This process demands a sensitive and very close reading of the original text, comprehension of the use of metaphor, idiom and its cultural content and then the transference of that material through a creative use of the target language and its resources.

Kamleshwar’s Partitions is a novel that fictionalises mythologies and histories. All along, it underscores the unnatural division of people and land.

In his author’s note, Kamleshwar writes “this novel was born out of a constant ferment within my mind...” Here is an excerpt from the novel Kitne Pakistan originally written in Hindi.

Given below is its translation in English.

In the re-creation of the original, in fact, another ‘original’ is born because the new text has to stand on its own with its own appeal. Only then will it acquire a special attraction. To strike a blend of beauty, readability and ‘fidelity’ is what the translator has to strive for. Sometimes the translator only focuses on the shell and not the kernel of the original and, what is achieved then is a literal and word-for-word translation but not literary translation that tries to capture varied nuances present in the language of the original text. A translation may end up being an adaptation due to the difficulty of the task. Ayappa Panikkar, the great Malayalam poet, rightly emphasised on total ‘interiorisation’ of the original text before attempting its translation.

Each type of translation has its own register to follow. While literary translation may use figurative language and words with unbridled connotations of meaning, scientific translation attempts to use words which are precise and free from alternative meanings. There is no emotion in scientific translation. Medical and legal translation too demand simple and accurate transmission of information and not a play of language and meaning. While all kinds of translations are challenging, it is literary translation that accords the translator the maximum range of creativity to totally transform the ‘original’ into becoming a powerful experience in yet another language.